Havel had been a leading figure of the Charter 77 human-rights movement and had spent nearly five years in prison. When mass protests began in November 1989, he led the opposition coalition Civic Forum in negotiations that ended four decades of communist rule without bloodshed, the Velvet Revolution. The same communist-era parliament that elected him had chosen Alexander Dubček, leader of the 1968 Prague Spring, as its chairman the day before. Havel served until 1992 and then as the Czech Republic's first president.
In early 1989, Havel was sentenced to nine months in prison for his part in a protest marking the 20th anniversary of Jan Palach's self-immolation; he was released in May. On November 17, police beat students at a demonstration in Prague, and within days hundreds of thousands filled Wenceslas Square. Civic Forum was founded in a Prague theatre, and Havel, known for plays that mocked the absurdities of the system, became its spokesman.
The communist leadership resigned within weeks, and a new government with a non-communist majority was sworn in on December 10. Students and supporters campaigned with the slogan "Havel na Hrad" (Havel to the Castle), meaning the presidential seat at Prague Castle. On December 29, the Federal Assembly, still made up of deputies elected under communism, voted for him unanimously.
In his first New Year's address, three days later, Havel told citizens that they lived in a "contaminated moral environment" and that everyone bore some responsibility. He oversaw free elections in 1990 and the peaceful separation of the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.
Key people: Václav Havel, Alexander Dubček